Vitamin E

A family of fat-soluble antioxidants, of which alpha-tocopherol is the form your body preferentially keeps. It protects cell membranes from oxidative damage.

The main fat-soluble antioxidant in cell membranes, protecting the fats in them from oxidation. Also has a role in immune function.

• Sunflower seeds
• Almonds and hazelnuts
• Vegetable oils
• Avocado
• Spinach
• Wheatgerm

Fat-soluble.

15 mg for most adults. The upper limit, past which harm becomes likely, is 1,000 mg from supplements.

Reference intakes are population figures. Pregnancy, illness, age and medication all move an individual’s needs, which is one of several reasons this page is information rather than advice.

Most at risk: Almost exclusively people with fat malabsorption or rare genetic disorders of fat transport.

Almost always fat malabsorption rather than intake — cystic fibrosis, cholestatic liver disease, short bowel — or rare genetic disorders. Also seen in very premature infants.

Very rare from diet. When it occurs it causes nerve and muscle damage — loss of coordination, weakness, and eventually retinal damage.

Every sign here has other, often likelier, explanations. A list of symptoms is a reason to look into something, never a diagnosis.

Serum alpha-tocopherol, usually expressed relative to blood lipids, because it travels with them and an isolated number can mislead.

Vegetable oils, sunflower seeds, almonds, hazelnuts, avocado and wheatgerm. Easy to obtain from ordinary food.

High-dose supplementation has not shown the benefits once hoped for and increases bleeding risk, particularly alongside anticoagulants. Natural (d-alpha) is retained better than synthetic (dl-alpha).

High-dose supplements increase bleeding risk and have been associated with higher all-cause mortality in some analyses. There is no reason to take large doses.

Interactions: Adds to the effect of warfarin and other anticoagulants.